$$$-1 + \frac{1}{\cos{\left(x \right)}}$$$ 的積分

求$$$\int \left(-1 + \frac{1}{\cos{\left(x \right)}}\right)\, dx$$$。

逐項積分：

$${\color{red}{\int{\left(-1 + \frac{1}{\cos{\left(x \right)}}\right)d x}}} = {\color{red}{\left(- \int{1 d x} + \int{\frac{1}{\cos{\left(x \right)}} d x}\right)}}$$

配合 $$$c=1$$$，應用常數法則 $$$\int c\, dx = c x$$$：

$$\int{\frac{1}{\cos{\left(x \right)}} d x} - {\color{red}{\int{1 d x}}} = \int{\frac{1}{\cos{\left(x \right)}} d x} - {\color{red}{x}}$$

使用公式 $$$\cos\left(x\right)=\sin\left(x + \frac{\pi}{2}\right)$$$ 將餘弦用正弦表示，然後使用二倍角公式 $$$\sin\left(x\right)=2\sin\left(\frac{x}{2}\right)\cos\left(\frac{x}{2}\right)$$$ 將正弦改寫。:

$$- x + {\color{red}{\int{\frac{1}{\cos{\left(x \right)}} d x}}} = - x + {\color{red}{\int{\frac{1}{2 \sin{\left(\frac{x}{2} + \frac{\pi}{4} \right)} \cos{\left(\frac{x}{2} + \frac{\pi}{4} \right)}} d x}}}$$

將分子與分母同時乘以 $$$\sec^2\left(\frac{x}{2} + \frac{\pi}{4} \right)$$$:

$$- x + {\color{red}{\int{\frac{1}{2 \sin{\left(\frac{x}{2} + \frac{\pi}{4} \right)} \cos{\left(\frac{x}{2} + \frac{\pi}{4} \right)}} d x}}} = - x + {\color{red}{\int{\frac{\sec^{2}{\left(\frac{x}{2} + \frac{\pi}{4} \right)}}{2 \tan{\left(\frac{x}{2} + \frac{\pi}{4} \right)}} d x}}}$$

令 $$$u=\tan{\left(\frac{x}{2} + \frac{\pi}{4} \right)}$$$。

則 $$$du=\left(\tan{\left(\frac{x}{2} + \frac{\pi}{4} \right)}\right)^{\prime }dx = \frac{\sec^{2}{\left(\frac{x}{2} + \frac{\pi}{4} \right)}}{2} dx$$$ (步驟見»)，並可得 $$$\sec^{2}{\left(\frac{x}{2} + \frac{\pi}{4} \right)} dx = 2 du$$$。

該積分變為

$$- x + {\color{red}{\int{\frac{\sec^{2}{\left(\frac{x}{2} + \frac{\pi}{4} \right)}}{2 \tan{\left(\frac{x}{2} + \frac{\pi}{4} \right)}} d x}}} = - x + {\color{red}{\int{\frac{1}{u} d u}}}$$

$$$\frac{1}{u}$$$ 的積分是 $$$\int{\frac{1}{u} d u} = \ln{\left(\left|{u}\right| \right)}$$$：

$$- x + {\color{red}{\int{\frac{1}{u} d u}}} = - x + {\color{red}{\ln{\left(\left|{u}\right| \right)}}}$$

回顧一下 $$$u=\tan{\left(\frac{x}{2} + \frac{\pi}{4} \right)}$$$：

$$- x + \ln{\left(\left|{{\color{red}{u}}}\right| \right)} = - x + \ln{\left(\left|{{\color{red}{\tan{\left(\frac{x}{2} + \frac{\pi}{4} \right)}}}}\right| \right)}$$

因此，

$$\int{\left(-1 + \frac{1}{\cos{\left(x \right)}}\right)d x} = - x + \ln{\left(\left|{\tan{\left(\frac{x}{2} + \frac{\pi}{4} \right)}}\right| \right)}$$

加上積分常數：

$$\int{\left(-1 + \frac{1}{\cos{\left(x \right)}}\right)d x} = - x + \ln{\left(\left|{\tan{\left(\frac{x}{2} + \frac{\pi}{4} \right)}}\right| \right)}+C$$

$$$\int \left(-1 + \frac{1}{\cos{\left(x \right)}}\right)\, dx = \left(- x + \ln\left(\left|{\tan{\left(\frac{x}{2} + \frac{\pi}{4} \right)}}\right|\right)\right) + C$$$A