$$$\sin{\left(x \right)} - \frac{\cos^{2}{\left(x \right)}}{\sin{\left(x \right)}}$$$の積分

$$$\int \left(\sin{\left(x \right)} - \frac{\cos^{2}{\left(x \right)}}{\sin{\left(x \right)}}\right)\, dx$$$ を求めよ。

項別に積分せよ:

$${\color{red}{\int{\left(\sin{\left(x \right)} - \frac{\cos^{2}{\left(x \right)}}{\sin{\left(x \right)}}\right)d x}}} = {\color{red}{\left(- \int{\frac{\cos^{2}{\left(x \right)}}{\sin{\left(x \right)}} d x} + \int{\sin{\left(x \right)} d x}\right)}}$$

分子と分母の両方に正弦を1つ掛け、残りはすべて余弦で表し、$$$\alpha=x$$$ を用いて公式 $$$\sin^2\left(\alpha \right)=-\cos^2\left(\alpha \right)+1$$$ を使う。:

$$\int{\sin{\left(x \right)} d x} - {\color{red}{\int{\frac{\cos^{2}{\left(x \right)}}{\sin{\left(x \right)}} d x}}} = \int{\sin{\left(x \right)} d x} - {\color{red}{\int{\frac{\sin{\left(x \right)} \cos^{2}{\left(x \right)}}{1 - \cos^{2}{\left(x \right)}} d x}}}$$

$$$u=\cos{\left(x \right)}$$$ とする。

すると $$$du=\left(\cos{\left(x \right)}\right)^{\prime }dx = - \sin{\left(x \right)} dx$$$（手順は»で確認できます）、$$$\sin{\left(x \right)} dx = - du$$$ となります。

したがって、

$$\int{\sin{\left(x \right)} d x} - {\color{red}{\int{\frac{\sin{\left(x \right)} \cos^{2}{\left(x \right)}}{1 - \cos^{2}{\left(x \right)}} d x}}} = \int{\sin{\left(x \right)} d x} - {\color{red}{\int{\left(- \frac{u^{2}}{1 - u^{2}}\right)d u}}}$$

定数倍の法則 $$$\int c f{\left(u \right)}\, du = c \int f{\left(u \right)}\, du$$$ を、$$$c=-1$$$ と $$$f{\left(u \right)} = \frac{u^{2}}{1 - u^{2}}$$$ に対して適用する:

$$\int{\sin{\left(x \right)} d x} - {\color{red}{\int{\left(- \frac{u^{2}}{1 - u^{2}}\right)d u}}} = \int{\sin{\left(x \right)} d x} - {\color{red}{\left(- \int{\frac{u^{2}}{1 - u^{2}} d u}\right)}}$$

分子の次数が分母の次数以上であるため、多項式の長除法を行います（手順は»で確認できます）:

$$\int{\sin{\left(x \right)} d x} + {\color{red}{\int{\frac{u^{2}}{1 - u^{2}} d u}}} = \int{\sin{\left(x \right)} d x} + {\color{red}{\int{\left(-1 + \frac{1}{1 - u^{2}}\right)d u}}}$$

項別に積分せよ:

$$\int{\sin{\left(x \right)} d x} + {\color{red}{\int{\left(-1 + \frac{1}{1 - u^{2}}\right)d u}}} = \int{\sin{\left(x \right)} d x} + {\color{red}{\left(- \int{1 d u} + \int{\frac{1}{1 - u^{2}} d u}\right)}}$$

$$$c=1$$$ に対して定数則 $$$\int c\, du = c u$$$ を適用する:

$$\int{\sin{\left(x \right)} d x} + \int{\frac{1}{1 - u^{2}} d u} - {\color{red}{\int{1 d u}}} = \int{\sin{\left(x \right)} d x} + \int{\frac{1}{1 - u^{2}} d u} - {\color{red}{u}}$$

部分分数分解を行う (手順は»で確認できます):

$$- u + \int{\sin{\left(x \right)} d x} + {\color{red}{\int{\frac{1}{1 - u^{2}} d u}}} = - u + \int{\sin{\left(x \right)} d x} + {\color{red}{\int{\left(\frac{1}{2 \left(u + 1\right)} - \frac{1}{2 \left(u - 1\right)}\right)d u}}}$$

項別に積分せよ:

$$- u + \int{\sin{\left(x \right)} d x} + {\color{red}{\int{\left(\frac{1}{2 \left(u + 1\right)} - \frac{1}{2 \left(u - 1\right)}\right)d u}}} = - u + \int{\sin{\left(x \right)} d x} + {\color{red}{\left(- \int{\frac{1}{2 \left(u - 1\right)} d u} + \int{\frac{1}{2 \left(u + 1\right)} d u}\right)}}$$

定数倍の法則 $$$\int c f{\left(u \right)}\, du = c \int f{\left(u \right)}\, du$$$ を、$$$c=\frac{1}{2}$$$ と $$$f{\left(u \right)} = \frac{1}{u + 1}$$$ に対して適用する:

$$- u + \int{\sin{\left(x \right)} d x} - \int{\frac{1}{2 \left(u - 1\right)} d u} + {\color{red}{\int{\frac{1}{2 \left(u + 1\right)} d u}}} = - u + \int{\sin{\left(x \right)} d x} - \int{\frac{1}{2 \left(u - 1\right)} d u} + {\color{red}{\left(\frac{\int{\frac{1}{u + 1} d u}}{2}\right)}}$$

$$$v=u + 1$$$ とする。

すると $$$dv=\left(u + 1\right)^{\prime }du = 1 du$$$（手順は»で確認できます）、$$$du = dv$$$ となります。

この積分は次のように書き換えられる

$$- u + \int{\sin{\left(x \right)} d x} - \int{\frac{1}{2 \left(u - 1\right)} d u} + \frac{{\color{red}{\int{\frac{1}{u + 1} d u}}}}{2} = - u + \int{\sin{\left(x \right)} d x} - \int{\frac{1}{2 \left(u - 1\right)} d u} + \frac{{\color{red}{\int{\frac{1}{v} d v}}}}{2}$$

$$$\frac{1}{v}$$$ の不定積分は $$$\int{\frac{1}{v} d v} = \ln{\left(\left|{v}\right| \right)}$$$ です:

$$- u + \int{\sin{\left(x \right)} d x} - \int{\frac{1}{2 \left(u - 1\right)} d u} + \frac{{\color{red}{\int{\frac{1}{v} d v}}}}{2} = - u + \int{\sin{\left(x \right)} d x} - \int{\frac{1}{2 \left(u - 1\right)} d u} + \frac{{\color{red}{\ln{\left(\left|{v}\right| \right)}}}}{2}$$

次のことを思い出してください $$$v=u + 1$$$:

$$- u + \frac{\ln{\left(\left|{{\color{red}{v}}}\right| \right)}}{2} + \int{\sin{\left(x \right)} d x} - \int{\frac{1}{2 \left(u - 1\right)} d u} = - u + \frac{\ln{\left(\left|{{\color{red}{\left(u + 1\right)}}}\right| \right)}}{2} + \int{\sin{\left(x \right)} d x} - \int{\frac{1}{2 \left(u - 1\right)} d u}$$

定数倍の法則 $$$\int c f{\left(u \right)}\, du = c \int f{\left(u \right)}\, du$$$ を、$$$c=\frac{1}{2}$$$ と $$$f{\left(u \right)} = \frac{1}{u - 1}$$$ に対して適用する:

$$- u + \frac{\ln{\left(\left|{u + 1}\right| \right)}}{2} + \int{\sin{\left(x \right)} d x} - {\color{red}{\int{\frac{1}{2 \left(u - 1\right)} d u}}} = - u + \frac{\ln{\left(\left|{u + 1}\right| \right)}}{2} + \int{\sin{\left(x \right)} d x} - {\color{red}{\left(\frac{\int{\frac{1}{u - 1} d u}}{2}\right)}}$$

$$$v=u - 1$$$ とする。

すると $$$dv=\left(u - 1\right)^{\prime }du = 1 du$$$（手順は»で確認できます）、$$$du = dv$$$ となります。

積分は次のようになります

$$- u + \frac{\ln{\left(\left|{u + 1}\right| \right)}}{2} + \int{\sin{\left(x \right)} d x} - \frac{{\color{red}{\int{\frac{1}{u - 1} d u}}}}{2} = - u + \frac{\ln{\left(\left|{u + 1}\right| \right)}}{2} + \int{\sin{\left(x \right)} d x} - \frac{{\color{red}{\int{\frac{1}{v} d v}}}}{2}$$

$$$\frac{1}{v}$$$ の不定積分は $$$\int{\frac{1}{v} d v} = \ln{\left(\left|{v}\right| \right)}$$$ です:

$$- u + \frac{\ln{\left(\left|{u + 1}\right| \right)}}{2} + \int{\sin{\left(x \right)} d x} - \frac{{\color{red}{\int{\frac{1}{v} d v}}}}{2} = - u + \frac{\ln{\left(\left|{u + 1}\right| \right)}}{2} + \int{\sin{\left(x \right)} d x} - \frac{{\color{red}{\ln{\left(\left|{v}\right| \right)}}}}{2}$$

次のことを思い出してください $$$v=u - 1$$$:

$$- u + \frac{\ln{\left(\left|{u + 1}\right| \right)}}{2} - \frac{\ln{\left(\left|{{\color{red}{v}}}\right| \right)}}{2} + \int{\sin{\left(x \right)} d x} = - u + \frac{\ln{\left(\left|{u + 1}\right| \right)}}{2} - \frac{\ln{\left(\left|{{\color{red}{\left(u - 1\right)}}}\right| \right)}}{2} + \int{\sin{\left(x \right)} d x}$$

次のことを思い出してください $$$u=\cos{\left(x \right)}$$$:

$$- \frac{\ln{\left(\left|{-1 + {\color{red}{u}}}\right| \right)}}{2} + \frac{\ln{\left(\left|{1 + {\color{red}{u}}}\right| \right)}}{2} + \int{\sin{\left(x \right)} d x} - {\color{red}{u}} = - \frac{\ln{\left(\left|{-1 + {\color{red}{\cos{\left(x \right)}}}}\right| \right)}}{2} + \frac{\ln{\left(\left|{1 + {\color{red}{\cos{\left(x \right)}}}}\right| \right)}}{2} + \int{\sin{\left(x \right)} d x} - {\color{red}{\cos{\left(x \right)}}}$$

正弦関数の不定積分は$$$\int{\sin{\left(x \right)} d x} = - \cos{\left(x \right)}$$$です:

$$- \frac{\ln{\left(\left|{\cos{\left(x \right)} - 1}\right| \right)}}{2} + \frac{\ln{\left(\left|{\cos{\left(x \right)} + 1}\right| \right)}}{2} - \cos{\left(x \right)} + {\color{red}{\int{\sin{\left(x \right)} d x}}} = - \frac{\ln{\left(\left|{\cos{\left(x \right)} - 1}\right| \right)}}{2} + \frac{\ln{\left(\left|{\cos{\left(x \right)} + 1}\right| \right)}}{2} - \cos{\left(x \right)} + {\color{red}{\left(- \cos{\left(x \right)}\right)}}$$

したがって、

$$\int{\left(\sin{\left(x \right)} - \frac{\cos^{2}{\left(x \right)}}{\sin{\left(x \right)}}\right)d x} = - \frac{\ln{\left(\left|{\cos{\left(x \right)} - 1}\right| \right)}}{2} + \frac{\ln{\left(\left|{\cos{\left(x \right)} + 1}\right| \right)}}{2} - 2 \cos{\left(x \right)}$$

積分定数を加える:

$$\int{\left(\sin{\left(x \right)} - \frac{\cos^{2}{\left(x \right)}}{\sin{\left(x \right)}}\right)d x} = - \frac{\ln{\left(\left|{\cos{\left(x \right)} - 1}\right| \right)}}{2} + \frac{\ln{\left(\left|{\cos{\left(x \right)} + 1}\right| \right)}}{2} - 2 \cos{\left(x \right)}+C$$

$$$\int \left(\sin{\left(x \right)} - \frac{\cos^{2}{\left(x \right)}}{\sin{\left(x \right)}}\right)\, dx = \left(- \frac{\ln\left(\left|{\cos{\left(x \right)} - 1}\right|\right)}{2} + \frac{\ln\left(\left|{\cos{\left(x \right)} + 1}\right|\right)}{2} - 2 \cos{\left(x \right)}\right) + C$$$A